{"response":{"docs":[{"id":"abj_p4017coll6_1845","title":"Fred Shuttlesworth","collection_id":"abj_p4017coll6","collection_title":"Photographs","dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Alabama, Jefferson County, Birmingham, 33.52066, -86.80249"],"dcterms_creator":null,"dc_date":["1922/2011"],"dcterms_description":null,"dc_format":["image/jpeg"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":null,"dcterms_publisher":["Birmingham Public Library (Alabama)"],"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":["Photographs--Portrait Collection no. 1557, Archives Department"],"dcterms_subject":["Civil rights workers--Alabama--Birmingham","African American clergy"],"dcterms_title":["Fred Shuttlesworth"],"dcterms_type":["StillImage"],"dcterms_provenance":["Birmingham Public Library (Ala.)"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["http://cdm16044.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p4017coll6/id/1845"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":["This material may be protected under Title 17 of the U. S. Copyright Law which governs the making of photocopies or reproductions of copyrighted materials. You may use the digitized material for private study, scholarship, or research."],"dcterms_medium":["photographs"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":["Shuttlesworth, Fred L., 1922-2011"],"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"vrc_goo","title":"Goochland County Rosenwald Schools oral history project, 2013-2015","collection_id":null,"collection_title":null,"dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Virginia, Goochland County, 37.72198, -77.91636"],"dcterms_creator":null,"dc_date":["1922/2014"],"dcterms_description":["The Goochland County Rosenwald Schools Oral History Project is a joint venture by Dr. Brian J. Daugherity of Virginia Commonwealth University and Dr. Alyce Miller of John Tyler Community College. The purpose of the project is to document education in Goochland County, Virginia, particularly the impact of the Rosenwald Schools, and the differences between the education offered to white and black students during the period the Rosenwald Schools operated. The project was funded in part by a grant from the Virginia Foundation for Humanities, the John Tyler Community College Foundation, and the Virginia Community College System.","During the Jim Crow Era, from roughly the 1870s until the 1950s, segregated school systems were supposed to be, according to the U.S. Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), “separate but equal.” In reality, educational systems for African Americans in Virginia, and elsewhere in the South, were anything but. Starting in the 1910s, “Rosenwald Schools” were constructed for black students as a philanthropic endeavor funded in part by businessman and philanthropist Julius Rosenwald. While Rosenwald provided the matching grant funds that supported the program, Booker T. Washington was the initial force behind its creation. The Rosenwald schoolbuilding program began in 1912 when Booker T. Washington asked permission to use some of the money Rosenwald had donated to the Tuskegee Institute to construct several small schools in rural Alabama.","Over a 15 year period, from 1917 to 1932, 4,977 schools, primarily for African Americans, were funded and built. According to Julius Rosenwald Fund records (JRF), the JRF helped construct 367 schools, three teacher’s homes, and eleven school (industrial) shops in Virginia. In addition to providing its own money, the Rosenwald Fund required matching funds from any combination of public and private sources. Of the total cost of Rosenwald-associated buildings, grounds, and equipment in Virginia from 1917 through 1932, African Americans contributed 22%, white contributions totaled 1%, the Rosenwald Fund contributed 15%, and state and local government contributions equaled 62%. In the fifteen states in the South where the school building program operated, African Americans collectively contributed 17% of the funds, the Rosenwald Fund contributed 15% of the funds, private white contributions totaled 4% of the funds, and public funds made up the remaining 64% of the funds.","The majority of the private funding for Rosenwald Schools came from the African American communities where the schools were located, because black citizens organized fundraisers and sacrificed some of their own, often meager, wages in support of a better education for their children.","Rosenwald Schools were built using architectural plans provided by the Rosenwald Fund. Most of the schools were constructed in rural communities that were unlikely to have access to electricity, so they were designed to take the most advantage of natural light. They also had strict guidelines regarding ventilation, interior and exterior color schemes and decorative appointments, the quality of the furnishings and blackboards, and the location of separate outhouses. Often, the walls separating classrooms were moveable to enable the community to create a larger meeting space as needed.","The Goochland County Rosenwald Schools Oral History digital collection consists of 19 video interviews with 18 participants with fully searchable transcripts and tape logs for 15 of the interviews. Additionally, photographs of the schools and documents relating to the Rosenwald Fund are included."],"dc_format":["application/pdf","image/jp2","video/mp4"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":null,"dcterms_subject":["Oral histories","Julius Rosenwald Fund--Buildings","African American schools--Virginia--Goochland County","Goochland County (Va.)--Race relations","African Americans--Education--Virginia--Goochland County","African American schools--Curricula--Virginia--Goochland County","Goochland County (Va.)--Buildings, structures, etc.","School buildings--Virginia--Goochland County","African American teachers--Virginia--Goochland County","Segregation in education--Virginia--Goochland County","Community activists--Virginia--Goochland County","African American schools--Museums--Virginia--Goochland County","School integration--Virginia--Goochland County","African American neighborhoods--Virginia--Goochland County"],"dcterms_title":["Goochland County Rosenwald Schools oral history project, 2013-2015"],"dcterms_type":["MovingImage","Sound","Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["James Branch Cabell Library. Special Collections and Archives"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://digital.library.vcu.edu/islandora/object/vcu:goo"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["oral histories (literary works)"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":["Bowles, James Harold--Interviews","Bowles, Vivian Knight--Interviews","Johnson, Ruth Cooke--Interviews","Pace, Earline--Interviews","Anderson, Francis--Interviews","Anthony, Eva--Interviews","Bowles, James Harold--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Dun-Moodie, Ina--Interviews","Haden, Joseph--Interviews","Hopkins, Calvin--Interviews","Johnson, Mattie Lee Harris--Interviews","Miller, Raymond A.--Interviews","Pace, Haywood--Interviews","Parrish, Alberta--Interviews","Parrish, Curtis--Interviews","Parrish, Phyllis--Interviews","Smith, Gail P.--Interviews","Ware, Sherman--Interviews","Anderson, Francis--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Anthony, Eva--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Bowles, James Harold--Political activity","Bowles, Vivian Knight--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Dun-Moodie, Ina--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Haden, Joseph--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Hopkins, Calvin--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Johnson, Mattie Lee Harris--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Johnson, Ruth Cooke--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Miller, Raymond A.--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Pace, Earline--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Pace, Haywood--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Parrish, Alberta--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Parrish, Curtis--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Parrish, Phyllis--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Quarles, William, Jr.--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Quarles, William, Jr.--Interviews","Smith, Gail P.--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes","Ware, Sherman--Childhood and youth--Anecdotes"],"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"nge_ngen_m-7337","title":"Marcus Garvey","collection_id":"nge_ngen","collection_title":"New Georgia Encyclopedia","dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, New York, New York County, New York, 40.7142691, -74.0059729"],"dcterms_creator":null,"dc_date":["1922"],"dcterms_description":["Marcus Garvey, the Jamaican-born founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association, presides over the organization's 1922 convention at Liberty Hall in New York City.","Photograph of Marcus Garvey, the Jamaican-born founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association, presiding over the organization's 1922 convention at Liberty Hall in New York City. Seated at a desk, he wears a suit and patterned vest. He holds a gavel in his left hand.","The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) had at least thirty-four divisions in Georgia during the early to mid-1920s. Black Georgians read its newspaper, the Negro World, and contributed generously to many UNIA causes. The UNIA's Jamaican founder, Marcus Garvey, had a significant following in the South, particularly in rural areas among tenant farmers and sharecroppers, for his programs of economic independence, racial separatism, and African redemption. His ideas also found strong support in urban areas with large black populations, in the Caribbean, and in Africa."],"dc_format":["image/jpeg"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":null,"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":["http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/universal-negro-improvement-association","Forms part of: New Georgia Encyclopedia"],"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/UND/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":["http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/universal-negro-improvement-association","Forms part of: New Georgia Encyclopedia"],"dcterms_subject":["Universal Negro Improvement Association","Congresses and conventions--New York (State)--New York","Civil rights workers--New York (State)--New York","Publishers and publishing--New York (State)--New York","Philanthropists--New York (State)--New York","Desks--New York (State)--New York","Gavels--New York (State)--New York","Black nationalism--United States","Authors, Jamaican--New York (State)--New York"],"dcterms_title":["Marcus Garvey"],"dcterms_type":["StillImage"],"dcterms_provenance":["New Georgia Encyclopedia (Project)"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/universal-negro-improvement-association/m-7337/"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":["Courtesy of Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers Project, UCLA","Courtesy of Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division"],"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["black-and-white photographs"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":["Garvey, Marcus, 1887-1940"],"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"suc_mmsimkins_7351","title":"Modjeska Simkins Papers, Topical Papers, South Carolina Tuberculosis Association, 1922-1948 and no date","collection_id":"suc_mmsimkins","collection_title":"Modjeska Monteith Simkins Papers, 1909-1992","dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, South Carolina, Richland County, Columbia, 34.00071, -81.03481"],"dcterms_creator":["Simkins, Modjeska Monteith, 1899-1992"],"dc_date":["1922/1948"],"dcterms_description":null,"dc_format":["image/jpeg"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":["South Carolina Political Collections"],"dc_relation":["Modjeska Simkins Papers, 1909-1992"],"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":null,"dcterms_subject":null,"dcterms_title":["Modjeska Simkins Papers, Topical Papers, South Carolina Tuberculosis Association, 1922-1948 and no date"],"dcterms_type":["Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["South Caroliniana Library"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://digital.tcl.sc.edu/digital/collection/mmsimkins/id/7351"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":["For more information contact South Carolina Political Collections, USC, Columbia, SC 29208."],"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["manuscripts (documents)"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":["Simkins, Modjeska Monteith, 1899-1992"],"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"wau_kingcowash_435","title":"Photo of Marine Employees Union 1922","collection_id":"wau_kingcowash","collection_title":"King County Snapshots: A Photographic Heritage of Seattle and Surrounding Communities","dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Washington, King County, Seattle, 47.60621, -122.33207"],"dcterms_creator":["Asahel Curtis"],"dc_date":["1922"],"dcterms_description":["This photograph depicts a union holiday gala of uniformed African-American stewards and other marine employees, and their families, at a location on Puget Sound. The photo is labeled December 28, 1922."],"dc_format":["image/jpeg"],"dcterms_identifier":["153","Curtis 43711"],"dcterms_language":null,"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/NoC-US/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":["King County Museum Collections"],"dcterms_subject":["King County (Wash.)--Pictorial works","Seattle (Wash.)--Pictorial works","Historic sites--Washington (State)--King County--Pictorial works","Historic sites--Washington (State)--Seattle--Pictorial works"],"dcterms_title":["Photo of Marine Employees Union 1922"],"dcterms_type":["StillImage"],"dcterms_provenance":["Washington State Historical Society"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/digital/collection/kccollects/id/435"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["photographs"],"dcterms_extent":["Scanned from slide as a 3000 pixel TIFF image in 16-bit color, resized to 640 pixels in the longest dimension and compressed into JPEG format using CONTENTdm's image import."],"dlg_subject_personal":null,"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"wau_kingcowash_359","title":"Photo of Suzue and Masato Yamada, Thomas, Auburn area 1922","collection_id":"wau_kingcowash","collection_title":"King County Snapshots: A Photographic Heritage of Seattle and Surrounding Communities","dcterms_contributor":["White River Valley Museum (Auburn)"],"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Washington, King County, 47.49084, -121.83583"],"dcterms_creator":null,"dc_date":["1922"],"dcterms_description":["The wedding ceremony for Suzue and Masato Yamada was held at the Thomas Buddhist Temple. The Yamada's later owned and operated a grocery store in Kent."],"dc_format":["image/jpeg"],"dcterms_identifier":["64"],"dcterms_language":null,"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/NoC-US/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":["King County Museum Collections"],"dcterms_subject":["King County (Wash.)--Pictorial works","Seattle (Wash.)--Pictorial works","Historic sites--Washington (State)--King County--Pictorial works","Historic sites--Washington (State)--Seattle--Pictorial works"],"dcterms_title":["Photo of Suzue and Masato Yamada, Thomas, Auburn area 1922"],"dcterms_type":["StillImage"],"dcterms_provenance":["University of Washington. Libraries"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/digital/collection/kccollects/id/359"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["photographs"],"dcterms_extent":["Scanned from slide as a 3000 pixel TIFF image in 16-bit color, resized to 640 pixels in the longest dimension and compressed into JPEG format using CONTENTdm's image import."],"dlg_subject_personal":["Yamada, Suzue","Yamada, Masato"],"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"vrc_goo_38425","title":"Plan for Distribution of Aid from the Julius Rosenwald Fund for Building Rural Schoolhouses in the South, For the Year Beginning July 1, 1922 and Ending June 30, 1923","collection_id":"vrc_goo","collection_title":"Goochland County Rosenwald Schools Oral History Project, 2013-2015","dcterms_contributor":["Daugherity, Brian J., 1972-","Miller, Alyce P.","Silvent, Christopher","James Branch Cabell Library, Special Collections and Archives","VCU Libraries"],"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Southern States, 33.346678, -84.119434"],"dcterms_creator":null,"dc_date":["1922"],"dcterms_description":["Outlines the conditions by which the Julius Rosenwald Fund awarded aid to communities in the Southern States for the construction of schools for African Americans. It also describes the role in the construction of the school that the community undertook upon acceptance of aid."],"dc_format":["application/pdf"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/NoC-US/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":["Original item: Plan for Distribution of Aid from the Julius Rosenwald Fund for Building Rural Schoolhouses in the South, For the Year Beginning July 1, 1922 and Ending June 30, 1923, Goochland County Rosenwald Schools Oral History Project, 2013-2015, M 501, Special Collections and Archives, James Branch Cabell Library, Virginia Commonwealth University.","Goochland County Rosenwald Schools Oral History Project, 2013-2015"],"dcterms_subject":["School buildings--Southern States--Finance","Community and school--Planning","African American schools--Southern States--History","Julius Rosenwald Fund--Buildings"],"dcterms_title":["Plan for Distribution of Aid from the Julius Rosenwald Fund for Building Rural Schoolhouses in the South, For the Year Beginning July 1, 1922 and Ending June 30, 1923"],"dcterms_type":["Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["James Branch Cabell Library. Special Collections and Archives"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://digital.library.vcu.edu/islandora/object/vcu%3A38425"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":["In Copyright","This material is protected by copyright, and the copyright is held by Brian J. Daugherity, Alyce Miller, and Christopher Silvent. You are permitted to use this material in any way that is permitted by copyright. In addition, this material is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 International license (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/). Acknowledgment of Virginia Commonwealth University Libraries as a source is required."],"dcterms_medium":["documents (object genre)"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":null,"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"gych_rbrl001rbrcx","title":"Richard B. Russell, Jr. collection, subgroup c, series x: civil rights, 1922-1971","collection_id":null,"collection_title":null,"dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, 39.76, -98.5"],"dcterms_creator":["Russell, Richard B. (Richard Brevard), 1897-1971"],"dc_date":["1922/1971"],"dcterms_description":["Subgroup C, Series X. Civil Rights is organized into forty-two subseries: A. Anti-lynching; B. Carter, Hodding - Articles; C. Civil Rights; D. Bills and Legislations; E. Civil Rights Commission; F. Civil Rights Fight; G. Cloture; H. Demonstrations; I. Fair Employment Practices Commission [FEPC]; J. Federal Registrar's Bill; K. Filibuster; L. Guidelines; M. Housing; N. Integration - Pro; O. Literacy Vote Bill; P. Little Rock; Q. NAACP; R. Negro; S. Negro Relocation; T. Negro Repatriation; U. Negro Resettlement; V. Negro-Ray Sprigle Articles; W. Poll Tax; X. Racial; Y. Racial-Alabama; Z. Racial - Mississippi; AA. Racial-Out of State; BB. Racial Segregation; CC. Requests for Civil Rights Material; DD. Riot Commission; EE. Riots; FF. Rule Change; GG. School Segregation; HH. Schools; II. Schools - Integration Directives; JJ. Segregation; KK. Segregation in the Armed Services; LL. Slander of the South; MM. Southern Caucus; NN. States' Rights; OO. Supreme Court; and PP. Constituent Correspondence Answered by Robo.","Materials Separated from the Resource:   John C. Stennis Papers, Mitchell Memorial Library, Mississippi State University, Lyndon B. Johnson Papers, Lyndon B. Johnson Library, Richard B. Russell, Jr. Gubernatorial Papers, Georgia Department of Archives and History, U.S. Senate. Committee on Appropriations, Center for Legislative Archives, NARA, U.S. Senate. Committee on Armed Services, Center for Legislative Archives, NARA.","Processing Information: Clippings have been copied onto bond paper for protection of content. Artifacts, photographs, books, and audiovisual materials have been separated for preservation purposes and inventoried. Case mail, cross-reference copies, and military academies are closed. Additional files are restricted throughout the collection, as noted in the container listing.","The Richard B. Russell, Jr. Collection, Subgroup C, Series X: Civil Rights relates to many aspects of the civil rights issue. Almost all of the files deal with black-white relations in the United States, particularly those involving legislative action during Senator Russell's career in the Senate. Issues, such as the antilynching bill, the Fair Employment Practices Committee, racial integration, and the various civil rights bills from 1948 until 1964, are documented. There are also records related to other topics such as cloture, the literacy voting bill, the poll tax, school prayer, and some subjects which are indirectly related to the race issue. Any additional non-textual materials originally filed with papers were removed for preservation purposes and improved access. These materials include photographs, audiovisual items, scrapbooks, vertical files, memorabilia, and books.","Subgroup C, Series X. Civil Rights relates to many aspects of the civil rights issue. Almost all of the files deal with black-white relations in the United States, particularly those involving legislative action during Senator Russell's career in the Senate. Issues, such as the antilynching bill, the Fair Employment Practices Committee, racial integration, and the various civil rights bills from 1948 until 1964, are documented. There are also records related to other topics such as cloture, the literacy voting bill, the poll tax, school prayer, and some subjects which are indirectly related to the race issue.","Richard Brevard Russell, Jr. held public office for fifty years as a state legislator, governor, and U.S. senator. The highlights of his legislative career included support of non-interventionist foreign policy, passage of the National School Lunch Program, securing funding for military installations and research facilities—including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention—and his opposition to equal rights for African Americans, most evident in the filibuster of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Russell was born in Winder, GA on November 2, 1897, to Judge Richard B. Russell, Sr. and Ina Dillard Russell, a teacher. He was the fourth of thirteen children and the first son. He earned a Bachelor of Laws degree from the University of Georgia in 1918. After a brief period practicing law, Russell ran for and won a seat in the Georgia House of Representatives in 1920. In 1927, he was elected Speaker of the House, a position he held until 1931. In 1930, Russell ran for governor against a crowded field of seasoned candidates, but he was victorious thanks to a grassroots campaign and his skill in door-to-door canvassing. He took the oath of office in June 1931 but only spent eighteen months as governor before the death of Senator William J. Harris presented him with the opportunity to run for the United States Senate. Russell entered the U.S. Senate in 1933 and served until his death in 1971. He became one of the Senate's most influential members. During his tenure, he served sixteen years as chair of the Armed Services Committee and held a seat on the Appropriation Committee that spanned his tenure in the Senate. Additionally, Russell held positions on the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, the Committee on Immigration, the Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee, and the Democratic Policy and Democratic Steering Committees. Although he wielded considerable power through these committee appointments, Russell did not seek a position in the Senate leadership. Instead, he supported the ambitions of his protégé, Senator Lyndon Johnson from Texas for majority whip and later for majority leader. Russell ended his career as president pro tempore of the Senate—a post reserved for the member with the longest tenure in the Senate—making him third in the line of presidential succession. Russell was known for his support of national defense, non-interventionist foreign policy, and his advocacy for agricultural interests (particularly those in Georgia). Russell opposed the United States entangling itself in international conflicts, especially in Vietnam and the Congo. In agricultural policy, the creation of the National School Lunch Program in 1946 was his most significant achievement for the nation's farmers. The program had the double effect of providing nutritious meals for schoolchildren while avoiding an economic crash by giving farmers a way to sell their surplus produce. Russell's opposition to civil rights legislation overshadowed his many legislative achievements. He began contesting civil rights legislation as early as 1935 when he joined other southern senators to block anti-lynching bills. Over three decades, Russell developed a reputation as a defender of “white traditions” and white supremacy. During the Senate’s debate of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, Russell led the Southern Bloc in a sixty-day filibuster in an attempt to prevent the bill’s passage, vowing to “resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races.” The filibuster came to an end only after a partnership of moderate Republicans and northern Democrats introduced a compromise bill that garnered the sixty-seven votes needed to invoke cloture and end the filibuster. The substitute civil rights bill passed on June 19 by a margin of 73-27. Though Russell advised against attempts to resist the Civil Rights Act at the state level, he remained unapologetic in his criticism of it. In a speech given in the Senate on June 18, 1964, Russell sought to encourage the other members of the Southern Bloc, saying “…there will never come a time when it will be necessary for any one of us to apologize for his conduct or his courage.”  Russell left behind a list of political and legislative achievements and a reputation for mastery of legislative strategy. Despite his other distinctions, racial animus and obstructionism would become the most remembered aspects of his legacy. As biographer Gilbert Fite noted, Russell might well have achieved more, were it not for his racial views."],"dc_format":["image/jp2"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC-EDU/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":null,"dcterms_subject":["Civil rights movements--United States","Literacy tests (Election law)--United States","Patronage, Political--United States","African Americans--Civil rights","Legislators--United States","Cloture","United States--Race relations","Poll tax--United States","School integration--United States","School integration--Arkansas--Little Rock","Legislators--Georgia","Civil rights movements--Georgia","United States. Congress. Senate--Cloture"],"dcterms_title":["Richard B. Russell, Jr. collection, subgroup c, series x: civil rights, 1922-1971"],"dcterms_type":["Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["Richard B. Russell Library for Political Research and Studies"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://dlg.usg.edu/record/gych_rbrl001rbrcx"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":["Richard B. Russell, Jr. Collection, Richard B. Russell Library for Political Research and Studies, The University of Georgia Libraries, Athens, Georgia."],"dlg_local_right":["Richard B. Russell, Jr. Collection, Richard B. Russell Library for Political Research and Studies, The University of Georgia Libraries, Athens, Georgia. Library acts as \"fair use\" reproduction agent. Before material from collections at the Richard B. Russell Library may be quoted in print, or otherwise reproduced, in whole or in part, in any publication, permission must be obtained from (1) the owner of the physical property, and (2) the holder of the copyright. It is the particular responsibility of the researcher to obtain both sets of permissions. 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