{"response":{"docs":[{"id":"hbcula_abco_0022","title":"American Baptist Theological Seminary Inauguration Program, January 27, 1946","collection_id":"hbcula_abco","collection_title":"American Baptist College Collection","dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Tennessee, Davidson County, Nashville, 36.16589, -86.78444"],"dcterms_creator":["American Baptist College"],"dc_date":["1946-01-27"],"dcterms_description":["The program for the inauguration of Ralph W. Riley as president of American Baptist Theological Seminary on January 27, 1946."],"dc_format":["application/pdf"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC-EDU/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":null,"dcterms_subject":["African American students","African American universities and colleges","African Americans--Education","College presidents","African American Methodists","Special events"],"dcterms_title":["American Baptist Theological Seminary Inauguration Program, January 27, 1946"],"dcterms_type":["Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) Library Alliance"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://hbcudigitallibrary.auctr.edu/digital/collection/abco/id/0022"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":["The Susie McClure Library of American Baptist College believes that the items presented in our digital collections are not encumbered by copyright or related rights. Nonetheless, as these materials are accessible to the public, certain limitations on subsequent usage may be in effect. Authorized uses for these items are confined to research, educational, and scholarly endeavors by U.S. Copyright Law Title 17, §108 U.S.C. In addition to educational purposes, individuals seeking to engage in other forms of utilization must secure explicit permission from the Susie McClure Library by contacting us at 615-687-6935."],"dcterms_medium":["programs (documents)"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":null,"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"sbh_civilrights12_1149","title":"Articles on the 1946 Boswell Amendment to the Alabama Constitution","collection_id":"sbh_civilrights12","collection_title":"Civil Rights","dcterms_contributor":["Freeman, Lee"],"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Alabama, Lauderdale County, Florence, 34.79981, -87.67725"],"dcterms_creator":null,"dc_date":["1946-01-25","1946-07-26","1946-08-30","1946-09-26","1946-10-05","1946-10-18","1946-10-25","1946-11-01","1946-11-02","1946-11-08","1946-11-15"],"dcterms_description":["A series of newspaper articles discussing the proposed Boswell Amendment to the Alabama Constitution of 1946. Section 181 of the Alabama constitution allowed a citizen to register to vote if either they or their spouse owned at least $300 worth of real or personal property. Proposed Amendment No. 4 \"reposes in County Registrars the right to require applicants for registration to interpret the Constitution of the United States. It removes the provision of our State Constitution providing that anyone owning as much as $300.00 may vote.\" Interestingly, while the Amendment passed in Alabama by a small margin Lauderdale County, voted against the Amendment 3 to 1. The charge to vote down the amendment was led by Florence Times editor Louis Eckl.","Civil Rights","(1) Alabama Politics. A Friday, January 25, 1946 Florence Herald article stating that Alabama's primaries will be held on May 7 and June 4, and that in 1946 \"for the first time since 1870 they will be open to Negroes both as voters and candidates.\" The paper noted that the term \"white\" was stricken from the state committee's primary call due to a 1944 US Supreme Court ruling that made segregated primaries unconstitutional while at the same time, ironically, the committee endorsed the Boswell Amendment, which states that potential voters much be literate as well as able to understand and explain any article of the US Constitution in order to qualify to vote.","(2) A Friday, July 26, 1946 Resolution by the Montgomery, AL Junior Chamber of Commerce opposing passage of the Boswell Amendment, \"which amendment prescribes who shall be qualified to register as voters in the State of Alabama.\" The Amendment essentially gave registrars the power to arbitrarily register or reject potential electors since an applicant had to satisfy the electors that he/she could understand/explain any section of the US Constitution, \"even though the highest court in the land [the US Supreme Court] often divides on Constitutional questions by a vote of five to four . . .\"","(3) Eighth District to Vote Sept. 24. A Florence Herald article noting that at a recent meeting of the AL State Democratic Executive Committee in Mobile, 53 out of 72 members voted for a Democratic Primary and 45 of 53 ballots endorsed using party funds to campaign for adoption of the Boswell Amendment.","(4-7) To the Voters of Alabama. A Friday, September 26, 1946 Florence Herald letter to the voters of Alabama by Gessner T. McCorvey, Chairman of the State Democratic Executive Committee of Alabama defending the Democratic Party's motto of \"White Supremacy,\" stressing the need to support Proposed Amendment to Section 181 of the Alabama Constitution, the \"Boswell Amendment\" in furtherance of that goal.","(8) A Saturday October 5, 1946 Florence Times report of a speech given to the Montgomery, AL Civitan Club by J. Miller Bonner, former AL state senator and legal advisor to former AL governor Frank Dixon in which Bonner predicted a takeover by black voters in Alabama within four years if passage of the Boswell Amendment to the AL Constitution failed to pass.","(9) Supporters of the Boswell Amendment. A Friday, October 18, 1946 Florence Herald article commenting on several prominent Alabama politicians who supported the Boswell Amendment, including Governor Chauncey Sparks and former Governor Frank Dixon as well as those in opposition to it including Governor elect James . Folsom and Senator Lister Hill.","(10) Wilkinson Rives to Appear in Debate. A Friday, October 25, 1946 Florence Herald announcement noting that noted Alabama attorneys Richard T. Rives of Montgomery and Horace C. Wilkinson of Birmingham were scheduled to participate in a debate at the courthouse in Florence on Thursday night, October 31, sponsored by the Florence Junior Chamber of Commerce on the subject \"Should the Boswell Amendment be Adopted?\" Wilkinson would take the positive while Rives defended the negative.","(11-12) Boswell Plan is Denounced by Publisher. A Wednesday, October 30, Florence Times report on a Tuesday night, October 29, debate in Huntsville, in Madison County, AL by Gessner T. McCorvey of Mobile, Chairman of the State Democratic Executive Committee, a proponent of the Boswell Amendment, and Col. Harry M. Ayers, publisher of the Anniston Star, an opponent of Amendment 4.","(13) A Wednesday, October 30, Florence Times report quoting Julian Bailey of Florence, secretary-treasurer of the Alabama State Painters Conference, who stated that at their Sunday, October 27, convention, after a thorough discussion of Amendment 4, the Painters expressed unanimous opposition to the amendment.","(14) A Thursday, October 30, 1946 Florence Times report on the debate scheduled to held that night at the Lauderdale County Courthouse in Florence between Col. Richard T. \"Dick\" Rives and the Hon. Horace C. Wilkinson on the proposed Boswell Amendment to the AL Constitution.","(15) Sidelights on the Passing Parade by Harold May. A report on the recent debate at the courthouse in Florence on the merits of the Boswell Amendment bet. Richard C. Rives of Montgomery and Horace C. Wilkinson of Birmingham.","(16-17) A Friday, November 1, Florence Times report on the Thursday night, October 31, 1946 Florence debate between opponent of Amendment Four, Col. Richard T. \"Dick\" Rives and its proponent, the Hon. Horace C. Wilkinson,","(18) A Friday, November 1, 1946 Florence Times report stating that Amendment Four to the Alabama Constitution was opposed by 80 Alabama ministers, priests and rabbis.","(19-20) The Nine Amendments. A Friday, November 1, 1946 Florence Herald synopsis of the nine proposed amendments to the Alabama Constitution, including the controversial Amendment No. 4, the \"Boswell Amendment.\"","(21) A Saturday, November 2, 1946 Florence Times editorial by editor Louis A. Eckl urging voters in the Muscle Shoals District to vote \"no\" on Amendment Four. In the editorial, Eckl characterized the arguments of Amendment Four proponent the Hon. Horace C. Wilkinson from his Thursday night, October 31 debate with Col. Richard T. \"Dick\" Rives as \"maggots of hate,\" reminiscent of speeches given by Adolph Hitler at the Nuremberg Sports Palace in the days before World War II. If passed, the amendment would substitute a government of men for one of law.","(22) In the Week's News. A Friday, November 8 Florence Herald report that the Boswell Amendment \"was ratified by a small margin on the face of incomplete returns,\" but that \"Lauderdale County voted against the Boswell Amendment by about 3 to 1 . . .\"","(23) Rev. Bob Cook Talks to Exchange Club. A Friday, November 8, 1946 report on the Monday, November 4, meeting of Florence's Exchange Club, which meets at Basil's Cafe, at which club president and Florence Herald managing editor Harold S. May polled members on the Boswell Amendment, with the tally showing that Exchangeites 2 to 1 were against the passage of the amendment.","(24) Amendment No. 4 Given Majority. A Friday, November 15, 1946 Florence Herald article reporting on the passage of all nine amendments to the Alabama Constitution, including controversial Amendment No. 4, which had \"the avowed aim of holding down Negro registration.\" The article notes that among opponents of the bill were Governor-Elect Jim Folsom and Senator Lister Hill, while prominent supporters included Governor Sparks and former Governor Frank Dixon."],"dc_format":["image/jpeg"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":["Newspapers.com","Bell and Howell Micro Photo Division"],"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":["(1-7","9-10","15","19-24) Florence Herald","(8, 11-14","16-18) Florence Times"],"dcterms_subject":["Civil rights--Alabama--Florence"],"dcterms_title":["Articles on the 1946 Boswell Amendment to the Alabama Constitution"],"dcterms_type":["StillImage"],"dcterms_provenance":["Shoals Black History"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://shoalsblackhistory.omeka.net/items/show/1149"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":["Images are available for educational and research purposes. This image may not be reproduced for commercial purposes without the express written consent of the copyright holder. It is the responsibility of the interested party to identify the copyright holder and receive permission."],"dcterms_medium":["newspaper clippings"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":null,"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"scdl_sthurmond_39","title":"Addresses of J. Strom Thurmond, Circuit Judge Eleventh Judicial Circuit, South Carolina, before the Sheriffs' Association of South Carolina at Wade Hampton Hotel, Columbia, S.C. 10:30 a.m., 22 January 1946, America's Challenge","collection_id":"scdl_sthurmond","collection_title":"Strom Thurmond Collection, Mss 100","dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, South Carolina, Richland County, 34.0218, -80.90304"],"dcterms_creator":["Thurmond, Strom, 1902-2003"],"dc_date":["1946-01-22"],"dcterms_description":null,"dc_format":["application/pdf"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":["Clemson, S.C. : Clemson University Libraries"],"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC-EDU/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":["Strom Thurmond Collection, Mss 100","Clemson University"],"dcterms_subject":null,"dcterms_title":["Addresses of J. Strom Thurmond, Circuit Judge Eleventh Judicial Circuit, South Carolina, before the Sheriffs' Association of South Carolina at Wade Hampton Hotel, Columbia, S.C. 10:30 a.m., 22 January 1946, America's Challenge"],"dcterms_type":["Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["South Carolina Digital Library"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/strom/39"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":["\u003cp\u003eCopyright of Clemson University. Use of materials from this collection beyond the exceptions provided for in the Fair Use and Educational Use clauses of the U.S. Copyright Law may violate federal law. Permission to publish or reproduce is required.\u003c/p\u003e"],"dcterms_medium":["manuscripts (documents)"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":["Thurmond, Strom, 1902-2003"],"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"int_jjhp_248424","title":"[Poll tax receipt for John J. Herrera, County of Harris - 1945]","collection_id":"int_jjhp","collection_title":"John J. Herrera Papers","dcterms_contributor":["Glass, Jim H."],"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Texas, Harris County, 29.85728, -95.39234"],"dcterms_creator":["Harris County (Tex.)"],"dc_date":["1946-01-17"],"dcterms_description":null,"dc_format":["image/png"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/UND/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":null,"dcterms_subject":["People--Ethnic Groups--Hispanics","Government and Law","Poll tax","Receipts"],"dcterms_title":["[Poll tax receipt for John J. Herrera, County of Harris - 1945]"],"dcterms_type":["Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["University of North Texas. Libraries"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth248424/"],"dcterms_temporal":["1939/2019"],"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["legal documents"],"dcterms_extent":["2 p. ; 9 x 17 cm."],"dlg_subject_personal":["Herrera, John J."],"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"int_jjhp_248440","title":"[Poll tax receipt for Olivia C. Herrera, County of Harris - 1945]","collection_id":"int_jjhp","collection_title":"John J. Herrera Papers","dcterms_contributor":["Glass, Jim H."],"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Texas, Harris County, 29.85728, -95.39234"],"dcterms_creator":["Harris County (Tex.)"],"dc_date":["1946-01-17"],"dcterms_description":null,"dc_format":["image/png"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/UND/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":null,"dcterms_subject":["People--Ethnic Groups--Hispanics","Government and Law--Taxes","Poll tax","Receipts"],"dcterms_title":["[Poll tax receipt for Olivia C. Herrera, County of Harris - 1945]"],"dcterms_type":["Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["University of North Texas. Libraries"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth248440/"],"dcterms_temporal":["1939/2019"],"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["legal documents"],"dcterms_extent":["2 p. ; 9 x 17 cm."],"dlg_subject_personal":["Herrera, Olivia C."],"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"auu_auc-058_auc-058-0029","title":"\"Government and Our Minorities\" Booklet and Correspondence, January 7, 1946","collection_id":"auu_auc-058","collection_title":"Southern Regional Council Papers","dcterms_contributor":["League of Women Voters"],"dcterms_spatial":["United States, 39.76, -98.5","United States, Georgia, Fulton County, Atlanta, 33.749, -84.38798"],"dcterms_creator":null,"dc_date":["1946-01-07"],"dcterms_description":["Letter to council members asking to spread a booklet, \"Government and Our Minorities\" to friends, and accompanying booklet from the League of Women Voters asking for Government's role in equal opportunities for minorities. 12 pages."],"dc_format":["application/pdf"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC-EDU/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":["Southern Regional Council Papers||http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12322/fa:058"],"dcterms_subject":["African American women","African Americans--Civil rights","African American civil rights workers","Suffrage","African Americans--Politics and government"],"dcterms_title":["\"Government and Our Minorities\" Booklet and Correspondence, January 7, 1946"],"dcterms_type":["Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["Atlanta University Center Robert W. Woodruff Library"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12322/auc.058:0029"],"dcterms_temporal":["1940/1949"],"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["correspondence"],"dcterms_extent":["12 pages"],"dlg_subject_personal":null,"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"xhs_inrec_451","title":"12th Street Bridge","collection_id":"xhs_inrec","collection_title":"Indianapolis recorder","dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Indiana, Marion County, Indianapolis, 39.76838, -86.15804"],"dcterms_creator":null,"dc_date":["1946"],"dcterms_description":["Indiana Avenue was separated from some adjacent neighborhoods by the Central Canal.  To reach Crispus Attucks High School and many venues along Indiana Avenue residents in some of these neighborhoods crossed at the 12th Street bridge."],"dc_format":["image/jp2"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":null,"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":["Indianapolis Recorder","P 0303"],"dcterms_subject":["Bridges--Indiana--Indianapolis","Canals--Indiana--Indianapolis"],"dcterms_title":["12th Street Bridge"],"dcterms_type":["StillImage"],"dcterms_provenance":["Indiana Historical Society"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["https://images.indianahistory.org/digital/collection/p0303/id/451"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":null,"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["black-and-white photographs"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":null,"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"okd_sipuel_238","title":"Acknowledgement of Brief Ada Lois Sipuel v. OU Board of Regents","collection_id":"okd_sipuel","collection_title":"Ada Lois Sipuel v. Board of Regents University of Oklahoma, 1948-","dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Oklahoma, 35.49209, -97.50328"],"dcterms_creator":["Oklahoma. Supreme Court"],"dc_date":["1946/1948"],"dcterms_description":["Acknowledgement of Brief Ada Lois Sipuel v. OU Board of Regents. State Supreme Court Civil Case No. 32756 regarding the first African-American woman admitted to the University of Oklahoma law school in 1948.","typed manuscript; 1 page"],"dc_format":["image/jpeg"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":null,"dcterms_subject":["Discrimination in education--Law and legislation--Oklahoma","African Americans--Civil rights--Oklahoma","African Americans--Segregation","Segregation in higher education--United States","African American women civil rights workers--Oklahoma","University of Oklahoma. Board of Regents","University of Oklahoma. School of Law","Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education","Oklahoma. Supreme Court"],"dcterms_title":["Acknowledgement of Brief Ada Lois Sipuel v. OU Board of Regents"],"dcterms_type":["Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["Oklahoma. Department of Libraries"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/ref/collection/sipuel/id/238"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":["Cite as: [specific document title], Ada Lois Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma, Civil Case No. 32756, Record Group 29-1-3, Supreme Court of the State of Oklahoma, Oklahoma State Archives Division, Oklahoma Department of Libraries, Oklahoma City, OK."],"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["judicial records"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":["Fisher, Ada Lois Sipuel, 1924-1995--Trials, litigation, etc."],"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"okd_sipuel_269","title":"Acknowledgement of Service Ada Lois Sipuel v. OU Board of Regents","collection_id":"okd_sipuel","collection_title":"Ada Lois Sipuel v. Board of Regents University of Oklahoma, 1948-","dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Oklahoma, 35.49209, -97.50328"],"dcterms_creator":["Oklahoma. Supreme Court"],"dc_date":["1946/1948"],"dcterms_description":["Acknowledgement of Service Ada Lois Sipuel v. OU Board of Regents. State Supreme Court Civil Case No. 32756 regarding the first African-American woman admitted to the University of Oklahoma law school in 1948.","typed manuscript; 1 page"],"dc_format":["image/jpeg"],"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":["eng"],"dcterms_publisher":null,"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":null,"dcterms_subject":["Discrimination in education--Law and legislation--Oklahoma","African Americans--Civil rights--Oklahoma","African Americans--Segregation","Segregation in higher education--United States","African American women civil rights workers--Oklahoma","University of Oklahoma. Board of Regents","University of Oklahoma. School of Law","Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education","Oklahoma. Supreme Court"],"dcterms_title":["Acknowledgement of Service Ada Lois Sipuel v. OU Board of Regents"],"dcterms_type":["Text"],"dcterms_provenance":["Oklahoma. Department of Libraries"],"edm_is_shown_by":null,"edm_is_shown_at":["http://digitalprairie.ok.gov/cdm/ref/collection/sipuel/id/269"],"dcterms_temporal":null,"dcterms_rights_holder":null,"dcterms_bibliographic_citation":["Cite as: [specific document title], Ada Lois Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma, Civil Case No. 32756, Record Group 29-1-3, Supreme Court of the State of Oklahoma, Oklahoma State Archives Division, Oklahoma Department of Libraries, Oklahoma City, OK."],"dlg_local_right":null,"dcterms_medium":["judicial records"],"dcterms_extent":null,"dlg_subject_personal":["Fisher, Ada Lois Sipuel, 1924-1995--Trials, litigation, etc."],"dcterms_subject_fast":null,"fulltext":null},{"id":"okd_sipuel","title":"Ada Lois Sipuel v. Board of Regents University of Oklahoma, 1948-","collection_id":null,"collection_title":null,"dcterms_contributor":null,"dcterms_spatial":["United States, Oklahoma, 35.49209, -97.50328"],"dcterms_creator":["Oklahoma. Supreme Court"],"dc_date":["1946/1948"],"dcterms_description":["Housed in the Oklahoma State Archives, this digital collection features 251 imaged documents from the Oklahoma State Supreme Court, Civil Case No. 32756 regarding the first African-American woman admitted to the University of Oklahoma law school in 1948. The collection includes defendant and plaintiff briefs as well as a trial transcript from the district court, all available through Oklahoma Crossroads.","A leading activist, lawyer, administrator, and educator Ada Lois Sipuel came of age during Oklahoma's Jim Crow era, Sipuel challenged the legal fiction of \"separate but equal\", opening higher education to African-American students in the state and laying the foundation for the Brown v. Board of Education landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court. Born on February 8, 1924, and raised in Chickasha, Oklahoma, Sipuel was the daughter of a minister and a homemaker. Her parents provided the family with financial security and a strong belief in racial equality. Following her brother's rejection of NAACP leaders suggestion to serve as plaintiff to challenge the segregationist admissions policy of the state's exclusively white law school at the University of Oklahoma, in the fall of 1945, her family volunteered Sipuel, a top student at Langston University. On January 14, 1946, the University of Oklahoma Law School rejected Sipuel's application for admission. Sipuel's attorneys, led by Thurgood Marshall and Oklahoman Amos T. Hall, filed a lawsuit alleging that the failure of the state to provide a comparable law school for African American students required that Sipuel be admitted to the university. Losing in state courts, Marshall argued Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma before the United States Supreme Court. There, Marshall argued that the state law school must open its doors to Sipuel, because it offered no comparable facility and that the entire doctrine of \"separate but equal\" should be abandoned. On January 12, 1948, the Supreme Court ruled that Sipuel was entitled to a legal education provided by the state and that Oklahoma must provide instruction for blacks equal to that of whites. In order to comply, Oklahoma officials stonewalled efforts to admit Sipuel to the University of Oklahoma by quickly constructing a makeshift black law school in the state capital building, Langston University School of Law. Further litigation was necessary to prove that this law school was inferior to the University of Oklahoma law school. Before a lawsuit challenging the new school was resolved, the law school ran out 1 of funds and this facility closed in 1949. The president of the University of Oklahoma law school admitted Sipuel who enrolled on June 18, 1949, becoming the first African American woman to attend an all white law school in the South. New challenges awaited Sipuel inside the classroom, including sitting in a segregated seat marked \"colored\" that was roped off from the rest of the class. She also had to eat in a separate chained-off guarded area of the law school cafeteria. Her lawsuit and tuition were supported by hundreds of small donations, and she believed she owed it to those donors to succeed. With the support of classmates, professors, and family, she graduated in 1951 with a law degree from the University of Oklahoma. After passing the bar, Sipuel practiced law until 1956, when she left legal practice to work as the public relations director for Langston University. She became a full time faculty member in 1959, eventually becoming head of the school's social science department. She returned to the University of Oklahoma, where she earned a master's degree in the late 1960s, and in 1991 she received an honorary doctorate from the law school. In 1992, Sipuel's life came \"full circle\" when she was appointed by Governor David Walters as a member of the Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma. Sipuel passed away on October 18, 1995, one of the most outstanding black women to have affected the course of American history."],"dc_format":null,"dcterms_identifier":null,"dcterms_language":null,"dcterms_publisher":["Supreme Court of the State of Oklahoma, Civil Case No. 32756"],"dc_relation":null,"dc_right":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"dcterms_is_part_of":null,"dcterms_subject":["Discrimination in education-- Law and legislation--Oklahoma","African Americans--Civil rights--Oklahoma","African Americans--Segregation","Segregation in higher education--United States","African American women civil rights workers--Oklahoma","University of Oklahoma. 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